NARRATION / DIRECT & INDIRECT SPEECH

1. What is narration?

Narration means reporting someone’s words.
There are two ways to report words:

1. Direct Speech – we use the exact words of the speaker inside quotation marks.
• Example: Riya said, “I am tired.”
2. Indirect Speech – we report the meaning of the words, not the exact words.
• Example: Riya said that she was tired.

2. Parts of a Direct Speech Sentence

Every direct speech sentence has two parts:

(a) Reporting Verb (RV)

The verb used to introduce the quote
said, told, asked, replied, shouted, said to, etc.

(b) Reported Speech (RS)

The words inside quotation marks.

Example:
Riya said (RV), “I am tired.” (RS)

3. GENERAL RULES FOR CHANGING DIRECT TO INDIRECT

Rule 1: Remove quotation marks

Use that for statements, if/whether for yes/no questions, and no connector for imperatives.

Rule 2: Change the Pronouns

Pronouns change according to:
1st person – changes according to the subject
2nd person – changes according to the object
3rd person – remains unchanged

Example:
He said, “I love you.”
→ He said that he loved her.

Rule 3: Change of Tense

This happens only when the reporting verb is in past tense.

DIRECT → INDIRECT

Direct	Indirect
Simple Present	Simple Past
Present Continuous	Past Continuous
Present Perfect	Past Perfect
Simple Past	Past Perfect
Past Continuous	Past Perfect Continuous
Will/Shall	Would/Should
Can	Could
May	Might

Examples

1. He said, “I am happy.”
   → He said that he was happy.
2. She said, “I have finished the work.”
   → She said that she had finished the work.
3. They said, “We will come.”
   → They said that they would come.

Rule 4: Change of Time & Place Words

Direct	Indirect
now	then
today	that day
yesterday	the previous day
tomorrow	the next day
here	there
this	that
these	those
last night	the previous night
next week	the following week

Example:

He said, “I will go tomorrow.”
→ He said that he would go the next day.

4. CHANGING DIFFERENT TYPES OF SENTENCES

A. STATEMENTS (Assertive sentences)

Rules

1. Use that
2. Change pronouns, tense, time/place

Examples

1. She said, “I like coffee.”
   → She said that she liked coffee.
2. Rohan said, “We are studying now.”
   → Rohan said that they were studying then.

B. QUESTIONS

Type 1: Yes/No Questions

Use 'if' or 'whether'.

Example:
He said, “Do you like tea?”
→ He asked if I liked tea.

Type 2: WH-Questions

(what, why, when, where, how, which, whom, whose)

Rule:
Keep the WH-word. No that.

Example:
She said, “Where do you live?”
→ She asked where I lived.

C. IMPERATIVES (Order, Request, Advice)

Rules

1. Remove quotes
2. Use to + verb
3. Use a proper reporting verb
• order/command
• request/beg/urge
• advise/suggest/warn

Examples

1. He said to me, “Sit down.”
   → He ordered me to sit down.
2. She said to him, “Please help me.”
   → She requested him to help her.
3. The doctor said to me, “Take your medicines.”
   → The doctor advised me to take my medicines.

D. NEGATIVE IMPERATIVES

Use 'not to' + verb

Example:
He said to me, “Don’t smoke.”
→ He warned me not to smoke.

E. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES

Remove interjections (oh, wow, alas, hurrah)

Use verbs like exclaimed with joy, sorrow, surprise, etc.

Examples

1. He said, “Hurrah! We won.”
   → He exclaimed with joy that they had won.
2. She said, “Alas! My cat is dead.”
   → She exclaimed with sorrow that her cat was dead.

F. OPTATIVE SENTENCES

(Wishes, prayers, blessings, curses)

Use verbs like:
wished, prayed, blessed, cursed

Examples:

1. He said, “May you succeed.”
   → He wished that I might succeed.
2. She said, “May God bless you.”
   → She prayed that God might bless me.

5. SPECIAL CASES & EXCEPTIONS

Exception 1: NO tense change

If the reporting verb is in the present or future, do not change the tense.

Example:
He says, “I am tired.”
→ He says that he is tired.

Exception 2: Universal truths, facts, proverbs

Tense does not change.

Example:
The teacher said, “The Earth moves around the Sun.”
→ The teacher said that the Earth moves around the Sun.

Exception 3: If the speaker and listener are the same

Pronouns stay according to meaning.

Exception 4: The Reporting verb suggests a command.

Change “said to” into:
ordered, requested, commanded, suggested, advised, urged, reminded, warned

6. HOW TO CONVERT INDIRECT TO DIRECT SPEECH (Reverse Rules)

1. Add quotation marks
2. Add proper punctuation
3. Change pronouns back
4. Change tense back
5. Restore time/place words
6. Use a suitable reporting verb

Example:
Indirect: He asked me to help him.
Direct: He said to me, “Please help me.”

  

Read More

COMBINING SENTENCES

 COMBINING SENTENCES

Q: Combine the following sets of sentences into a single sentence in each case, using the words given in brackets.

1. Success shouldn't madden people. I believe so. (that)

Answer: I believe that success shouldn't madden people.

2. Ravi is late to arrive. It is raining heavily outside. (because)

Answer: Ravi is late to arrive because it is raining heavily outside.

3. I could finish my assignment in time. I was late to report. (although)

Answer: Although I was late to report, yet I could finish my assignment in time.

4. It was almost midnight. Shivam knocked at my door. (when)

Answer: It was almost midnight when Shivam knocked at my door.

5. You must reach your destination. All your travels will be meaningless. (unless)

Answer: Unless you reach your destination all your travels will be meaningless.

6. I behold a rainbow in the sky. My heart leaps up. (when)

Answer: My heart leaps up when I behold a rainbow in the sky.

7. This institute is doing a lot of good work to help the needy. It has become very famous. (which)

Answer: This institute, which has become very famous is doing a lot of good work to help the needy.

8. Learn to control your temper. You will end up fighting with everybody. (otherwise)

Answer: Learn to control your temper otherwise you will end up fighting with everybody.

9. Some people lose hope. They find it hard to cope with problems. (who)

Answer: Some people who find it hard to cope with problems lose hope.

10. I was pleased to see my old college friends at the conference. We hadn’t seen each other since we finished our course. (as)

Answer: I was pleased to see my old college friends at the conference as we had not seen each other since we finished our course.

11. People do not realise how important it is to conserve energy. They do nothing about that. (therefore)

Answer: People do not realise how important it is to conserve energy, therefore, they do nothing about that.

12. My grandmother prepared some sandwiches. They have all been eaten. (which) 

Answer: My grandmother prepared some sandwiches which have all been eaten. 

13. Atal Bihari Vajpayee works for 18 hours a day. He had accorded Yeoman's service to the nation as far as his economic reforms are concerned. (who)

Answer: Atal Bihari Vajpayee who works for 18 hours a day ahs accorded Yeoman's service to the nation as far as his economic reforms are concerned.

14. Persist in your endeavour. You are sure to succeed. (and)

Answer: Persist in your endeavour and you are sure to succeed.

15. Snoring usually disturbs other people. It does not disturb the sleeper. (but)

Answer: Snoring usually disturbs other people but it does not disturb the sleeper.

COMBINING SENTENCES

16. The doctors could not save Mr Santosh Mittal. his lever was completely damaged. (because)

Answer: The doctors could not save Mr Santosh Mittal because his lever was completely damaged.

17. With strong determination she overcomes all the problems. there is no one to help her. (although)

Answer: With strong determination, she overcomes all the problems although there is none to help her.

18. I have bought a woollen shawl for my mother. Severe winter has started now. (because)

Answer: I have bought a woollen shawl for my mother because severe winter has started now.

19. Anup must hire a taxi to reach the railway station in time. He is already late. (unless)

Answer: Unless Anup hires a taxi he won't reach the railway station in time.

20. Nanu is very fat. He can climb the stairs in one breath. (although)

Answer: Although Nanu is very fat, he can climb the stairs in one breath.

21. My elder brother has bought a car. It is an old car of 1996 model. (which)

Answer: My elder brother has bought a car which is of 1996 model.

22. I have a beautiful watch. It always keeps the correct time. (which)

Answer: I have a beautiful watch which keeps the correct time. 

23. He reached late. The teacher marked him absent. (therefore)

Answer: He reached late, therefore the teacher marked him absent.

24. My brother wants to speak to you. You met him yesterday. (whom)

Answer: My brother whom you met yesterday wants to speak to you.

25. He is very careful. He cannot make a mistake. (too)

Answer: he is too careful to make a mistake.

26. The thief broke into his house. Do you know him? (who)

Answer: Do you know the thief who broke into his house?

 

Read More

DETERMINERS

Determiners: English Grammar

DETERMINERS

Determiners are words placed before nouns to determine or clarify the significance or the special meaning of the nouns they qualify in a particular context. Singular nouns always take a determiner. However, the use of determiners is optional in plural nouns. Similarly, determiners may or may not be used with uncountable nouns depending on the context. There are about 50 different determiners in the English language which can be classified under the following heads:

1. Articles:                  a, an, the

2. Possessives:            my, your, our, their, his, hers, whose, etc.

3. Demonstratives:     this, that, these, those, which, etc.

4. Quantifiers:            few, a few, many, much, each, every, some, any, etc.

5. Numbers:               one, two, three, twenty, etc.

6. Ordinals:                first, second, last, next, etc.

Determiners, therefore, are used to:

•          State the unit/number of people, things or other nouns.
•          State possessives.
•          Specify someone or something.
•          State how things or people are distributed.
•          State the difference between the nouns.

Determiners: English Grammar

ARTICLES: A/AN

The articles ‘a’ and ‘an’ are called indefinite articles. As determiners, they tell us that the nouns that follow them are singular in number.

Study these examples:

• I have a book. I wrote my name on it with a pencil. (before any singular countable noun that  begins with a consonant sound.)
• I met a European. (before a singular countable noun that begins with a consonant sound but written with a vowel letter.)
• I saw a magician. (before a singular, countable noun when it is introduced for the first time.)
• A pet needs to be looked after. (before a singular, countable noun which represents a class.)
• Apples are Rs 100 a dozen. With the cat around, a litre of milk is not sufficient for us anymore. (before units of price, speed, ratio, weight, etc.)
• Wow! What a beauty! It went for a six! (as a part of an exclamatory expression.)

The article ‘an’ has the same functions as that of the article ‘a’ but it is only used before the nouns that begin with a vowel sound.

• He was late by an hour. (the noun ‘hour’ sounds like ‘our’ -  a vowel sound.)
•  He is an MP from Bihar. She is an MA in English. (letter ‘M’ is a consonant but it begins with an ‘a’ sound, hence ‘an’ is used.)

OMISSION OF A/AN

There are times when the articles ‘a’ and ‘an’’ are not used:

• Trees are planted to counter pollution. Books are expensive these days. (before all plural nouns.)
• It is gold. I don’t take nonsense from anyone, so please don’t try. Do you know where is luggage is? (before the uncountable or mass nouns: ‘gold’ is uncountable, so are ‘nonsense’ and ‘luggage’.)
• Lunch is ready. Would you like to have breakfast now? (before the names of meals; breakfast, lunch.)

Determiners: English Grammar

ARTICLES: THE

‘The’ is the definite article. We use it before the countable nouns, both singular and plural, and also before the uncountable nouns.

Study these examples:

•  A lion and a rabbit struck a friendship. One day the rabbit decided to give the lion a gift. (before a common noun that has already been introduced in a context; any further reference to the same noun is made using the definite article ‘the’)
• The Prime Minister, the General, the Captain, the Buddha. (before a noun that shows a particular rank or position.)
• The boy in blue shirt; the girl in red salwar suit. (before a noun that points a particular thing or place with the help of a phrase.)
• The Earth; the Universe; the Moon; the Solar system; the heavenly bodies. (before unique or celestial bodies like planets and stars.)
• The Ganga; the Dal lake; the Himalayas; the Sahara desert; the Wellington island. (before the names of rivers, seas, oceans, mountains and deserts.)
• The great Satyajit Ray; the immoral Shakespeare. (before a proper noun preceded by an adjective.)
• The rich and the famous; the one and the only; the bold and the beautiful; the rich and the poor. (before the adjectives that represent a class of people.)
• The United Kingdom; the United States of America. (before the names made up of two proper nouns.)
• The Khannas; the Mohans. (before the names that represent a family.)
• The Indira Gandhi International Airport; the Ambedkar stadium; the museum. (before the names of the buildings of significance, markets, etc.)
• The Times of India; the Hindustan Times. (before the names of newspapers and magazines.)
• The Hindus; the Indian. (before the names of ethnic groups, communities, races, etc.)
• The UNESCO; the US; the UN. (before the abbreviations of the names of the organisations.
• The 10^th 2006; the 15^th August 1947; the first child. (before the ordinal numbers that show the dates, position, etc.)

OMISSION OF THE ARTICLE ‘THE’:

• Many times the definite article ‘the’ is not used:
• Ranvir, Honda City, Sunday. (before proper nouns.)
• Elegance is what matters. Poverty is no crime. (before abstract nouns.)
• Mother, uncle, grandma. (before words that show relation.)
• Speech is silver, silence is gold. (before the material nouns.)
• Hindi, English, Physics. (before the names of languages and other branches of knowledge.)
• I play football but only watch cricket. (before the names of games.)
• Nature is bountiful. Let nature nurture it. (before the noun ‘nature’.)
• I am at home. Is Anu at home? (before ‘home’ when it is preceded by a verb.)
• He is in school. He went to bed early. (before things and places used for their primary purpose.)

Determiners: English Grammar
DEMONSTRATIVES: THIS/THESE and THAT/THOSE

The Words 'this', 'these', 'that' and 'those' are also determiners like the articles. These are called 'Demonstartive' as they point to things, people and places. The question word 'which' is used in order to frame a question based on a statement with a demonstrative. 

Example: That book is on the table. (Which book?)

NOTE: The words 'this', 'these', 'that' and 'those' , when used before a verb, do function of a pronoun.

Example: That is my book.

'This' and 'that' are singular, their plurals are 'these' and 'those' respectively. Let's examine how the demonstratives are used.

• This phone is not working (singular). These shirts are of no use to him (plural).  
• That pen is mine (singular). Those pencils are yours (plural).
• This picture is for you. These pictures are for you. ('This' and 'these' point to the things that are physically closer to us.)
• That picture is for you. Those pictures are for you. ('That' and 'those' point to things that are physically away from us.)
• Keep this book here and that in the shelf there. (Singular)
• Keep these books here and those in the shelf there. (Plural)
• Take that book and read. (Singular)
• Take those books and read. (Plural)

'Demonstratives' are also used as a substitute when a noun needs to be repeated especially in the same sentence.

• This film is better than that we saw last week.
• These mangoes are sweeter than those we brought from Agra.
• Those who want to take part in the competition, register your names now.

POSSESSIVES:

Possessives are adjectives that show possession. They are determiners as they precede nouns and qualify their special meanings.

• You must do your homework.
• I must do my homework.
• My shirt is new.
• His book is on the table.
• Her father is in London.

The underlined words in the above sentences are the possessives.

Now look at the following sentences:

• You must do your homework. I must do mine.

In the first sentence the determiner 'your' is a possessive adjective while in the second sentence, 'mine' is a personal pronoun.

Now read the following examples:

POSSESSIVES ADJECTIVES                                          PERSONAL PRONOUNS

• This is my house.                                                       This house is mine.    
• This is his room.                                                        This room is his.
• This is your responsibility.                                        This responsibility is yours.
• This is their problem.                                                This problem is theirs.                                  

TABLE OF PRONOUNS

PERSONAL PRONOUNS	POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES (DETERMINERS)	POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
I	My	Mine
We	Our	Ours
You	Your	Yours
He	His	His
She	Her	Hers
It	Its	-
They	Their	Theirs

NOTE: When the pronouns take 's' to form possessive pronoun, no apostrophe is used before the letter 's' as in the case of 'yours truly' and 'yours sincerely'. Such subscriptions make the closing of a later. Also, note that it is incorrect to use the possessive adjectives in the place of possessive pronouns or vice versa.

For example;
This is mine book (incorrect). This book is my (incorrect).
Determiners: English Grammar

QUANTIFIERS:
Quantifiers are determiners used before countable and uncountable nouns.

More often used quantifiers:

Some and Any: 'Some' and 'any' are quantifiers used with plural or uncountable nouns to show a certain number or amount. The quantifier 'any' is generally preceded by negative verbs to give a negative sense. 

'Some' and 'any' answer question like 'how many?' or 'how much?'

         SOME                                                                                   

• He bought some clothes. (With affirmative verb)
• Did some of you go to see the exhibition? (The expected answer is 'yes')
• May I have some biscuits? (Making a request)

        ANY

• I don't have any butter. (With a negative verb)
• There aren't any biscuits.
• She barely has any knowledge of her sister's income. (Negative words: hardly, scarcely, barely)
• Would you like to see any movie? (Making an offer)

Few/A few; Little/A little: The determiners 'few' and 'little' are used to indicate that something is not enough while 'a few' and 'a little' show that there is something but it is not a lot or not more than needed.

     FEW/A FEW

• There are few chairs. (Not enough for all the people)
• There are a few chairs. (Enough for all the people)
• There are few students in class. (You cannot teach)
• There are a few students in class. (You can teach)

     LITTLE/A LITTLE

• There is little money. (Can't buy expensive clothes)
• There is a little money. (Can buy some expensive clothes)

NOTE: 

• few; little = not sufficient, not enough (scarcity).
• a few; a little = sufficient/enough (no scarcity).

    

   THE LITTLE; THE FEW

The determiners 'the little' and 'the few' are used with the relative pronoun 'that'.

• The little room that I have is not enough for another person.
• The little money that I have will not last for a week.
• The few people that I know do not drive.
• The few apples that are there in the fridge are stale.

Relative pronouns can be safely used because they do not affect the meaning of the sentence.

  MUCH/MANY
'Much' and 'many' are used to show that there is 'a lot of' something. We use 'much' with the uncountable nouns and 'many' with the countable plural nouns.

• Many people are in need of medical help. (a plural verb is used with 'many')
• Many children are still starving. (a plural verb is used with 'many')
• Much work is being done now. (a singular verb is used with 'much')
• There isn't much food left now. (a singular verb is used with 'much')

   MORE/LESS/FEWER

'More' 'less' and 'fewer' are comparative determiners.

• There is more rice in the bowl.
• More water is what we requie.

'Less' is usually used before uncountable nouns. 'Less' refers to an amount of something that is small.

• Children outside cities have less access to education.
• Doing a lot in less time is what a smart worker does.

The determiner 'fewer' is used to show something lesser in number.

• Fewer trees are felled now.
• There are fewer job opportunities in the government sector.
• Fewer people speak English.

Determiners: English Grammar

DISTRIBUTIVE DETERMINERS

Distributive determiners include words like 'each', 'every', 'neither', 'both', 'all', 'one', 'another', 'other', 'several', 'one', 'two', 'first', 'second', etc. 

Study the following examples:

• Every child loves to play. (every one among all)
• We gave each child a toy. (one by one)
• Both children did well in studies. (indicates two)
• He ate both pieces of the pastry. (indicates two)
• They found both books interesting. (indicates two)
• Neither of the boys knows how to play cricket. (indicates two)
• It is sad that neither of his friends helped him. (indicates two)
• Either of the boys can go to the railway station. (one of the two)
• You can eat either half of the apple. (one of the two)
• He took another cup of milk. (one more)
• Another culprit has been caught. (one more)
• He added another century to his credit. (or more)
• The other activities include social work and gardening. (one or some among many)
• There were other people in the auditorium. (additional)
• Most people knew that they were cheated. (the majority)
• I was happy that most girls did well in English. (the majority)
• I have met him on several occasions. (many times)
• Several children fell ill after consuming the milk. (many)
• There is not enough money to buy expensive clothes. (scarcity)
• We don't have enough water to drink. (scarcity)
• We had one patient with H1N1. (only one)
• One plate of food will do for the two of us. (only one)
• All children were dressed in uniform. (everyone)

Determiners: English Grammar

Read More